Effect of photodynamic therapy on the virulence factors of Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus are Gram-positive bacteria who integrate the human microbiota. Nevertheless, these bacteria can be pathogenic to the humans. Due to the increasing occurrence of antibiotic-resistant S. aureus new approaches to control this pathogen are necessary. The antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation process (PDI) is based in the combined use of a light source, an oxidizing agent like oxygen and an intermediary agent (a photosensitizer). These three components interact to form cytotoxic reactive oxygen species that irreversibly damage vital constituents of the microbial cells and ultimately lead to cell death. In fact, PDI is being shown to be a promising alternative to the antibiotic approach in the inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms. However, information on effects of photosensitization on particular virulence factors is strikingly scarce. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of PDI on virulence factors of S. aureus. For this, as photosensitizer the 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(1-methylpyridinium-4-yl)porphyrin tetra-iodide (Tetra-Py+-Me) and six strains of S. aureus (one reference strain, one strain with 1 enterotoxin, two strains with 3 enterotoxins and two strains resistant to methicillin, MRSA – one with 5 enterotoxins and the other without enterotoxins) were used. The effect of photosensitization on catalase activity, beta hemolysis, lipases, thermonuclease, enterotoxins, coagulase production and resistance to methicillin was assessed. The results indicate that the expression of some virulence factors in the cells subjected to this therapy is affected. Additionally the susceptibility of the strains to PDI did not decrease upon successive treatments.

Compósitos de polímeros naturais e nanopartículas metálicas

Esta tese descreve diversas estratégias de preparação assim como a caracterização de nanocompósitos com base em distintos biopolímeros. Em particular foi estudada a incorporação de nanopartículas (NPs) metálicas, nomeadamente de Ag, Cu e Au. Estes nanomateriais apresentam um potencial prático enorme em diversas áreas, no entanto foi investigada especificamente a sua aplicação como materiais antimicrobianos. No primeiro capítulo apresenta-se uma revisão bibliográfica, onde são realçados os principais tópicos discutidos ao longo da tese. Inicialmente apresenta-se uma contextualização deste trabalho sendo seguidamente apresentadas algumas considerações sobre nanocompósitos e o seu impacto tecnológico atual. Em seguida, descrevem-se as vantagens do uso de NPs como cargas nos materiais compósitos especificamente no caso de bionanocompósitos. Foi focado o uso da celulose como matriz uma vez que foi o composto “base” usado neste trabalho. Fez-se a descrição exaustiva das metodologias existentes na literatura para a preparação dos nanocompósitos celulósicos com diferentes NPs metálicas assim como das respetivas aplicações. Dentro das aplicações, foi dado especial destaque às propriedades antimicrobianas dos materiais preparados seja a nível da sua atividade antibacteriana ou antifúngica. Esta introdução privilegia o trabalho relacionado diretamente com os sistemas descritos nos capítulos subsequentes. No segundo capítulo apresentam-se os resultados obtidos para nanocompósitos de prata em matriz celulósica. Através do uso de metodologias, tais como a síntese in situ e a pós-deposição, foram preparados diversos materiais usando dois substratos celulósicos distintos nomeadamente a celulose vegetal e bacteriana. Estes nanocompósitos foram caracterizados em termos da sua morfologia e composição química, verificando-se a importância destas características na sua atividade antibacteriana. Foi verificado que nanocompósitos com teores de Ag de 5 x 10-4 (% m/m) são suficientes para obter atividade antibacteriana. A libertação de Ag(I) foi estudada em alguns destes materiais de modo a tentar perceber o mecanismo subjacente a este tipo de nanocompósitos. No terceiro capítulo é apresentado o estudo de NPs coloidais de Ag e Au como cargas para a preparação de nanocompósitos à base de quitosano nãomodificado e modificado quimicamente (derivado solúvel em água e derivado anfifílico). Foram preparados filmes finos de espessura de 9-14 μm, caracterizando-se as suas propriedades óticas e antibacterianas. As propriedades óticas foram ajustadas, quer pela variação do teor de NPs de Ag (0,3-3,9% m/m) ou pela utilização de amostras de NPs com distribuição de tamanho de partícula distinta. Foi investigada a atividade antibacteriana tanto para bactérias Gram-negativas (Klebsiella pneumoniae e Escherichia coli) como para Gram-positivas (Staphylococcus aureus). Para nanocompósitos preparados com o quitosano não modificado verificou-se uma dependência em função do teor de Ag. No caso do uso de derivados modificados, os materiais preparados mostraram uma eficiência superior, mesmo sem NPs de Ag. No quarto capítulo é apresentada a síntese e caracterização de nanocompósitos de pululano e NPs de Ag. Neste estudo é avaliada a atividade antifúngica dos filmes compósitos preparados contra o Aspergillus niger usando protocolos padrão. Estes materiais foram preparados na forma de filmes (66-74 μm de espessura) por evaporação de solvente da mistura de pululano e coloides de Ag. Foi observado o aumento da inibição do fungo na presença dos nanocompósitos, tendo sido pela primeira vez mostrado o efeito disruptivo destes materiais sobre os esporos do A. niger através da análise das imagens de SEM. Este efeito ocorre na presença dos filmes devido à presença das cargas de NPs de Ag dispersas no pululano. O desenvolvimento de materiais de papel com NPs de Cu é um desafio devido à propensão destas espécies em oxidar sob condições ambiente. No quinto capítulo é descrita pela primeira vez o estudo comparativo do crescimento e estabilidade de NPs de Cu em celulose vegetal e bacteriana. Para além disso foi avaliado o uso de nanoestruturas com diferentes dimensionalidades como cargas, nomeadamente nanoesferas e nanofios. Foi observado que o uso de nanofios aumenta a resistência à oxidação destes nanocompósitos para tempos de exposição ao ar mais prolongados. As matrizes celulósicas apresentam comportamento distinto no crescimento e/ou adsorção das NPs de Cu. A celulose bacteriana foi o substrato mais eficiente para retardar a oxidação das NPs. A atividade antibacteriana destes nanocompósitos foi avaliada. Ao longo desta dissertação são apresentados métodos distintos para a obtenção de nanocompósitos com base em biopolímeros e NPs metálicas. Estes estudos permitiram não só a preparação de novos nanocompósitos mas também compreender e otimizar os mecanismos subjacentes à sua preparação. Ao mesmo tempo, este trabalho contribuiu para a transferência de tecnologia e conhecimento entre a área da Nanotecnologia e a área dos materiais derivados de fontes renováveis. As propriedades apresentadas por estes nanomateriais mostraram a sua possível aplicação como novos materiais antimicrobianos, no entanto é possível antecipar futuras aplicações em outras áreas tecnológicas.

Photodynamic inactivation of bacteria by cationic porphyrins : their cellular targets and potential environmental applications

Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) is defined as the process of cell destruction by oxidative stress resulting from the interaction between light and a photosensitizer (PS), in the presence of molecular oxygen. PDI of bacteria has been extensively studied in recent years, proving to be a promising alternative to conventional antimicrobial agents for the treatment of superficial and localized infections. Moreover, the applicability of PDI goes far beyond the clinical field, as its potential use in water disinfection, using PS immobilized on solid supports, is currently under study. The aim of the first part of this work was to study the oxidative modifications in phospholipids, nucleic acids and proteins of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus warneri, subjected to photodynamic treatment with cationic porphyrins. The aims of the second part of the work were to study the efficiency of PDI in aquaculture water and the influence of different physicalchemical parameters in this process, using the Gram-negative bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri, and to evaluate the possibility of recycling cationic PS immobilized on magnetic nanoparticles. To study the oxidative changes in membrane phospholipids, a lipidomic approach has been used, combining chromatographic techniques and mass spectrometry. The FOX2 assay was used to determine the concentration of lipid hydroperoxides generated after treatment. The oxidative modifications in the proteins were analyzed by one-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Changes in the intracellular nucleic acids were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis and the concentration of doublestranded DNA was determined by fluorimetry. The oxidative changes of bacterial PDI at the molecular level were analyzed by infrared spectroscopy. In laboratory tests, bacteria (108 CFU mL-1) were irradiated with white light (4.0 mW cm-2) after incubation with the PS (Tri-Py+-Me-PF or Tetra-Py+-Me) at concentrations of 0.5 and 5.0 μM for S. warneri and E. coli, respectively. Bacteria were irradiated with different light doses (up to 9.6 J cm-2 for S. warneri and up to 64.8 J cm-2 for E. coli) and the changes were evaluated throughout the irradiation time. In the study of phospholipids, only the porphyrin Tri-Py+-Me-PF and a light dose of 64.8 J cm-2 were tested. The efficiency of PDI in aquaculture has been evaluated in two different conditions: in buffer solution, varying temperature, pH, salinity and oxygen concentration, and in aquaculture water samples, to reproduce the conditions of PDI in situ. The kinetics of the process was determined in realtime during the experiments by measuring the bioluminescence of V. fischeri (107 CFU mL-1, corresponding to a level of bioluminescence of 105 relative light units). A concentration of 5.0 μM of Tri-Py+-Me-PF was used in the experiments with buffer solution, and 10 to 50 μM in the experiments with aquaculture water. Artificial white light (4.0 mW cm-2) and solar irradiation (40 mW cm-2) were used as light sources.

Brazilian savanna forest : conservation, medicinal reservoir and bioprospecting

This study aimed to analyse the Brazilian savanna forest from a Legal Reserve (LR) area from a perspective of conservation, reservoir of organic carbon and medicinal biomass for a prospective use of native medicinal plants. An ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological survey was carried out close to a community settled in the rural area in the south of Tocantins, being selected 9 of the most cited species (cajuí- Anacardium othonianum; inharé-Brosimum gaudichaudii; jatobá-Hymenaeae courbaril; jenipapo-Genipa americana, aroeira-Myracrodruon urundeuva; negramina-Siparuna guianensis; barbatimão- Stryphnodendron obovatum; assa peixe-Vernonia brasiliana, embaúba-Cecropia pachystachya). Crude foliar extracts were subjected to a preliminary phytochemical prospection and triage of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial activity of potential interest in health and familiar agriculture. Phenolic compounds, terpenes and flavonoids were detected in the extracts of most species, which suggests the presence of antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-insect activities. It was evident the need to better know the LR as a reservoir of medicinal biomass in an area under ecological tension where 35% (610ha) of the property is LR and should be protected by law. Therefore, a forest inventory of live woody species was performed using the allometric or indirect method. This identified a rare remnant of Semidecidual Seasonal Forest amidst the largest world savannah, the Cerrado biome. An analysis of the forest average productivity per basal area (m².ha), aerial live biomass (ton.ha-1) and carbon stock was carried out. The forest fragment was considered relatively rich in species and diversity, although showing signs of disturbance and dominance by a few species. Its horizontal structure suggests biotic regeneration conditions. It is an important reservoir of medicinal plants. Of the families (57.5%) presenting medicinal species, 19 from a total of 33 are represented in the area and contain 44% (27) of the total species (61) and 63% (432) of the total individuals catalogued. Medicinal species have ecological importance for the equilibrium of the local flora and represent 80% of the 10 species with higher Importance Value Index (IVI): Tetragastris altissima, Chrysophyllum marginatum, Oenocarpus distichus, Sclerolobium paniculatum, Simarouba versicolor, Alibertia macrophylla, Siparuna guianensis, Maprounea guianensis, Licania parvifolia e Physocalymma scaberrimum. Medicinal productivity was high for this type of phytophysionomy: 183,2 ton. ha-1 of biomass and 91,51 ton. ha-1 of carbon representing 66% of the total biomass and carbon of this Cerrado forest. From this stage S. guianensis (Siparunaceae) was selected for performing bioassays in order to verify its biological activity against microorganisms of health and agricultural relevance. This is a native aromatic medicinal plant recommended as priority for conservation, with local popular medicinal validation and availability of medicinal feedstock (3300 Kg.ha-1), with the foliar fraction giving 38Kg/ha of crude extract and 5L/ha of essential oil. Foliar crude extracts and essential oil were obtained and tested in vitro using a disk diffusion bioassay. Different concentrations of these natural products were tested against gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213), gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and ATCC 35218; Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145) and fungi (Candida albicans ATCC 6258 e Fusarium oxysporum). The essential oil inhibited the growth of S. aureus in its crude concentration (380μg.mL-1), as well as diluted to half (190μg.mL-1) and a quarter strength (95μg.mL-1). It’s likely that such action is due to sesquiterpenes major components, such as bisabolol and bisabolene (10.35%), measured by gas chromatography (GC-MS, GC-FID). Extracts did not exhibit any antimicrobial activity against the microorganisms tested. The native medicinal plants prospective market is an alternative that favours the conservation of biodiversity while generating benefits for the development of sustainable family productive activities within local ecosystems instead of the current inappropriate uses. This strengthens conservation policies of Legal Reserve in rural settlements and is in agreement with public policy on global warming and climate changes.

Development of infrared spectroscopy for assessing bacterial quality in foods

Rapid and specific detection of foodborne bacteria that can cause food spoilage or illness associated to its consumption is an increasingly important task in food industry. Bacterial detection, identification, and classification are generally performed using traditional methods based on biochemical or serological tests and the molecular methods based on DNA or RNA fingerprints. However, these methodologies are expensive, time consuming and laborious. Infrared spectroscopy is a reliable, rapid, and economic technique which could be explored as a tool for bacterial analysis in the food industry. In this thesis it was evaluated the potential of IR spectroscopy to study the bacterial quality of foods. In Chapter 2, it was developed a calibration model that successfully allowed to predict the bacterial concentration of naturally contaminated cooked ham samples kept at refrigeration temperature during 8 days. In this part, it was developed the methodology that allowed the best reproducibility of spectra from bacteria colonies with minimal sample preparation, which was used in the subsequent work. Several attempts trying different resolutions and number of scans in the IR were made. A spectral resolution of 4 cm-1, with 32 scans were the settings that allowed the best results. Subsequently, in Chapter 3, it was made an attempt to identify 22 different foodborne bacterial genera/species using IR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis. The principal component analysis, used as an exploratory technique, allowed to form distinct groups, each one corresponding to a different genus, in most of the cases. Then, a hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to further analyse the group formation and the possibility of distinction between species of the same bacterial genus. It was observed that IR spectroscopy not only is suitable to the distinction of the different genera, but also to differentiate species of the same genus, with the simultaneous use of principal component analysis and cluster analysis techniques. The utilization of IR spectroscopy and multivariate statistical analysis were also investigated in Chapter 4, in order to confirm the presence of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. isolated from contaminated foods, after growth in selective medium. This would allow to substitute the traditional biochemical and serological methods that are used to confirm these pathogens and that delay the obtainment of the results up to 2 days. The obtained results allowed the distinction of 3 different Listeria species and the distinction of Salmonella spp. from other bacteria that can be mistaken with them. Finally, in chapter 5, high pressure processing, an emerging methodology that permits to produce microbiologically safe foods and extend their shelf-life, was applied to 12 foodborne bacteria to determine their resistance and the effects of pressure in cells. A treatment of 300 MPa, during 15 minutes at room temperature was applied. Gram-negative bacteria were inactivated to undetectable levels and Gram-positive showed different resistances. Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus decreased only 2 logs and Listeria innocua decreased about 5 logs. IR spectroscopy was performed in bacterial colonies before and after HPP in order to investigate the alterations of the cellular compounds. It was found that high pressure alters bands assigned to some cellular components as proteins, lipids, oligopolysaccharides, phosphate groups from the cell wall and nucleic acids, suggesting disruption of the cell envelopes. In this work, bacterial quantification and classification, as well as assessment of cellular compounds modification with high pressure processing were successfully performed. Taking this into account, it was showed that IR spectroscopy is a very promising technique to analyse bacteria in a simple and inexpensive manner.